All three patients had undergone extensive abdominal and pelvic surgery, and further abdominal and retroperitoneal surgery would have carried a substantial risk (see Table 1 for details). Figure 1 is the anterior nephrostogram from patient 1, showing obstruction where the ureter passes over his aorto-bifemoral graft. In Figure 2, from patient 2, the soft-tissue mass encasing the ureter is due to endometriosis (unchanged over 4 years). All patients had their first stent inserted antegradely after nephrostomy placement. Thereafter, stent changes were performed retrogradely under general anaesthesia. The only proven complication was one lower urinary tract infection. Urinary frequency, loin pain on micturition, and stent calcification have not been observed. Table 1 Patient details
