Understanding the status and trends of ecosystem services (ES) in a changing environment is important for identifying effective management measures of multifunctional mangrove ecosystems. Mangroves and their ES are jeopardized by a complex set of factors, with impacts that are experienced at local levels, especially in developing countries, where people often rely directly on natural capital for their livelihoods and well-being. This study was set to explore how local communities in the Rufiji Delta, situated in central coastal Tanzania, perceived the status and trends in mangrove ecosystem services (MES), associated drivers of change and the impacts of changes in MES on local livelihoods. A mixed methodological framework (including focus group discussions, key informant interviews, household surveys and direct observations) was used. People from villages close to mangroves rated the status of MES higher than those in villages distant from mangroves. Provisioning services (P) were often perceived to be in a worse and more declining state than regulating (R), cultural (C) and supporting services (S). A decrease in availability of poles and firewood (P), decline of fish habitats (S) and an increase in education value (C) were the most commonly perceived changes of MES in the study area. Illegal harvesting of mangrove poles, rice cultivation, climate change and inadequate management were seen as the most critical drivers of mangrove degradation, although the perceptions differed between sites. Rice farming was perceived to be a primary cause of mangrove loss by communities far from mangrove forests, while illegal exploitation was identified as the major driver by communities near mangroves. Fishing, collection of poles and honey were perceived as the most impacted livelihoodsdepending on MES. This together with the comparatively low status and declining trend of these MES indicate that they should be of high management priority as indicated by the first order management index used in this study.
